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The Sumerian language has thus far not been linked with any other large family of languages. This web page is dedicated to showing a relationship between Sumerian and the Austric languages.
Sumerian is an agglutinative language like those in the Austric family. Like those languages it uses liberally both suffixes and prefixes in its morphology. In this sense, it differs from other Asiatic agglutinative languages like Ural-Altaic (Uralic and Altaic), Dravidian, Japanese and Korean, which use almost exclusively suffixes in the conjugation of the verb and declension of nouns and pronouns.
According to many experts, the Al-Ubaid people were ancestral to the Sumerians, or at least, to their culture. The Al-Ubaid skulls show a chaemaerrhine index with a mean value of 49.2. In other words, they had very broad noses. The skulls had both subnasal and alveolar prognathism, or fullness of the lower and upper lips. The average linear projection was 8 mm. for the skulls. Their heads were long and narrow.
Buxton and Rice found that of 26 Sumerian crania 17 were Australoid, five Austrics and four Armenoid. According to Penniman who studied skulls from Kish and other Sumerian sites, these three: the Australoid (Eurafrican), Austric and Armenoid were the "racial" types associated with the Sumerians. Here is Penniman's description of the Austric type found at Sumer:
"These people are of medium stature, with complexion and
hair like those of the Eurafrican, to which race they are
allied, dark eyes, and oval faces. They have small ill-filled
dolichocephalic skulls, with browridges poorly developed or
absent, bulging occiputs, orbits usually horizontal ellipses,
broad noses, rather feeble jaws, and slight sinewy bodies."
Both the Australoid and Austric type are found in India, where the former is known as Dravidian in its less extreme variety. Like all the different populations of India, both Dravidian and Austric are long-headed like most of the skulls at Sumer. As one goes further East, Austrics become mostly round-headed due possibly to the greater proportion of Mongoloid blood, and the Austronesians of the South Seas are primarily round-headed. Formerly, it was popular to ascribe the Australoid and Austric types to "dark Caucasoid" origin in the Mediterranean area. Indeed, some archaeologists, anthropologists, geneticists, linguists etc., still subscribe to this theory. However, skeletons of both types have now been found in Sri Lanka, Australia and parts of Southeast Asia that are significantly older than those of the Mediterranean. Also, the recent finds of very early hominids in Java and China, predating those to the west, and the obvious tropical nature of the two types themselves, make such theories unnecessary and forced.
Przyluski and Autran carried out a very preliminary comparison of Sumerian and Austric earlier this century in which they showed some sound correspondences between the two.
While Sumerian is primarily SOV, it also has instances of SVO, VO and VS. Other Austric languages are also mostly SVO, for example, the Munda languages in Austro-Asiatic/Miao, many of the Austronesian languages of Papua, and Japanese according to Benedict's Japanese/Austro-Tai theory. So, lets start with our comparison of the languages.
Pronouns
Sumerian Austric
I ga ga (Taulil), go (Solor), gau (Gao), gni (Savo)
ga (Dialect Japanese?) kaw (Khamti, Ahom, Sham,
Tho-nung), ku (Siam, Lao, Black Tai), ke
(Santa Cruz), -gu (Dawawa, Kakabai,
Sinaki, Suau, Bohutu, object suffix)
ga- (Bwaidoka, subject prefix)
You za.e, ze sau, si, su (Austro-Tai), hau (Manggarai)
su (Atayal), su-, -sun (Paiwan), za (variant of sama),
oze, ozo (Japanese)
He/She ene eni (Vanua Lava, Mantion), ini (Bank's Is.),
ine (New Hebrides), ina (Santa Cruz),
ena- (Suau, Molima), ena (Manikion)
They e.ne.ne-ra (dative) inira (Vunapu, Penantsiro, Akei, Wailapa,
Tutuba, Vao), enira (Tangoa), enir (Vanua
Lava, inir (Gaua), ineira (Mota)
Pronominal Suffixes
I -en in (Santali free pronoun);
en (Sakai free pronoun),
-ano, -eno,-ino (Baruya, subject
person suffixes) -ana (Ampale,
subject person suffix), -in (Sora)
you -en -an (Menya, subject person suffix),
-aano, -ino, ano (Baruya, subject person
suffix), ina (Ampale, subject person
suffix), -em (Sora)
he/she -e e (Santali free pronoun),
-ei (Are, object suffix), -i
(Kukuya, Wedau, Taupota, Garuwahi,
object suffix), e- (Dawawa, Kakabai,
Sinaki, subject prefix), e- (Ouma,
Bina, Gadaisu, pronominal prefix),
e (Areas, short free pronoun), -i
Kapau, Menya, subject person suffix),
-e (Sora)
we -enden -antane, -entana-zi (Ampale, subject person
suffix), anate (Lifu, free pronoun)
they -es -usi, -avi (Ampale, subject person suffix),
-si (object suffix, Are), -hi (Tawala),
-s (Muyuw, object suffix), -eji (Sora)
Possessive Suffix
mine -gu -gu (Ouma, Magori, Yoba, Bina)
gu (Japanese, humble), -ku (Kapampangan,
Malay), -ko (Tagalog), -kdu (Cham)
(also the pronoun suffixes:
-go (Loyalty Is.), gu-, ku-
(New Hebrides), -k (Banks Is.),
-qu (Fiji), -gu, -ku, (Solomon Is.,
Maori)
your -zu -sun (Paiwan, pronominal suffix),
su (Ahom, Khamti) ha (Sakai),zune
(Japanese, plural), unzu (Japanese)
our -me amin (Philippines), -ma (Dobu, excl.),
-m (Muyuw, excl.), -mai ((Magori, Yoba,
Bina, excl.), -mami, -melu (Saa, Ulawa,
Wolio, Proto-East Oceanic, excl.),
-mey (Muyuw, excl. accompaniment)
his -a.ni anin-a (Savara), ini-ren (Mundari),
uni-ren (Santali), -na (Malay, Kalokalo,
Kukuya, Tawala, Suau), -ne (Ninowa),
-nu (Cham), niya (Kapampangan),
nah (Talaing), ana- (Misima, Muyuw,
Kukuya, Mwatebu), -n (Kilivila, intermediate)
their -a.ne.ne aninji-na (Savara), nah (Talaing),
-na (Malay), -nu (Cham), aninji (Sora)
Interrogatives
What? A.na? Ano? (Philippines, Indonesia), Uani?
(Letemboi), Nani? (Japan), Nanu?
(Kapampangan)
Who? A.ba? Si-apa (Malay/Indonesia from apa? "What?"),
Pa? (Infit., Ikiti), Pae? (Imreang, Ikiyau),
Pah? (Loniel), Pai? (Weda, Sawai), Abhay?,
Abe? (Nissaya Burmese, classified as
Sino-Tibetan or Tibeto-Burmese, but of
highly mixed characteristics including
agglutinative morphology.) Epa? (Fasu)
Aapi? (Kewa), Ibuge? (Foe), Bo? (Sakai)
When? Me-na-am? Mana nui? (Chamorro), Mangge? (Chamorro), mingyaal
(Yap), mo (Bontok)
Where? Me-a? Mana? (Malay, Indonesia)
Conjugation Prefixes
Sumerian Austric
i- i- (Philippines, definite or passive)
im-, am- um- (Tagalog, active)
ma-, mu-, ma- (Philippines, Malay, Indonesia, active, passive)
na-i-ga, nam-ga, nag- (possibly as bounded form, Phil., Indonesia, active)
na-an-ga-,
(affirmative)
ba-, pa- pa- (Kapampangan, non-agentive, causative, etc.)
(non-agentive) ba- (Ouma, Magori, Yoba, Bina, 1sg. past)
bi- pi- (Tagalog)
Verbal Prefixes
na- na- (Muyuw, negative)
(negative)
-nga- nga (Philippines, adverb "really,
("also") truly.")
-mga- ngke (Indonesia, "here, now), ngayon
("at this time") (Philippines, adverb, "now, at this time.")
Pronominal Prefixes
e/a- a- (Muyuw, Gumasi, Are, Tawala, Kukuya, Wedau, Taupota)
e- (Magori, Yoba), e/a (Loyalty Is., New Hebrides,
Banks Is., Solomon Is., verbal particles that can act
as pronouns)
n- n- (Motlav, Volow, verbal particle), na (Torres Is., Savo),
nu (Merlav), n- (Asmat-Kamoro family, South VK stock).
Prepositions, Particles and Conjuctions
Sumerian Austric
in, among, from sa sa (Philippines, Malay
"in, from, on, etc.")
on, by, for ki kin (Kapampangan "on, to
by"), ka (Danaw, "for")
if, when ud-da ata, aka (Polynesian "if, as,
but"), ato (Peterara),
outn (Dixon Reef)
this ne, ne.en ne (New Hebrides, Solomon Is.),
nene (Solomon Is.), nei (Maori),
ini (Malay), nae (Burumba),
nana (Lamenu), nini (Sowa)
that/this -bi bi- (Tairora, Gadsup, Awa,
Auyana, "that")
Case Markers
Sumerian Austric
Dative -na- na (Nifilole), ne (Espirito
Santo), ma (Santa Cruz),
Locative -ri- (variant of ray (Saisiyat), leng (Sora),
-ni-) ri (Nengone), ra, lo (Ambrym),
lo (Ureparapara), -re (Kherwari,
Santali, Mundari)
Locative -ni- -ni, nen (Inibaloi)
meng (Sora)
Locative (inanimate) -a ah (Balangaw), -a (Juang)
Comitative -da ta (Kavalan), ki (Saisiyat)
Locative-terminative -e (inanimate) i (Thao, locative)
Ergative -e e (common Polynesian)
Equative -gin gana ("likeness, like" Proto-Austronesian,
adjective), gina, gen, -gena,
-gen, etc. ("like" Japanese
adjective or equative suffix)
Genitive -ak -ak (Santali, Mundari, mostly inanimate
but also with pronouns and familiar
animate nouns)
Verbal Postpositions
"when" na na, ina (Proto-Austronesian, "when," "now")
"if" ba ba, be, (Proto-Austronesian, "if"),
pe (Proto-Central-Eastern-Austronesian, "if"),
-ba (Japanese, hypothetical suffix)
Adjectival Termination
Sumerian Austric
-a (forms adjective) -a (Sesake, Ureparapara,
Fiji, Ulawa, Saa, Tonga,
Samoa)
Noun Construction
Sumerian Austric
nig- + noun/verb = noun nag- + noun/verb = noun (Philippines)
nam- + noun/verb/adjective = noun na + noun = noun (Hawai`i, plural),
(plural or expressing whole) na- + noun = noun (New Hebrides,
usually expresses whole)
nga + noun = noun (Maori, plural)
mga + noun = noun (Philippines, plural)
noun + -ene = plural noun noun + -an = group of objects (Tagalog)
noun + -an = expression of whole (Sundanese)
noun + -e = ergative "e" before or after noun = ergative
(Polynesia)
Reduplicated noun = totality Reduplicated noun = totality (Austric)
Reduplication
Sumerian Austric
Triple Duplication Triple Duplication
ga-ga-ga napaka-ganda-ganda-ganda-han
(Philippines)
Quadruple Duplication Quadruple Duplication
ga-ga-ga-ga pi-pi-pi-pi-va (Melanesia)
Verbal Suffixes
Sumerian Austric
-ak (genitive), -a-ka (genitive-locative) -ake, -aka
(Java, Fiji, verbal suffixes)
-ta (ablative-instrumental), -da -ta'i (Samoa, verbal case suffix)
(comitative)
-se (terminative) -sa'i (Samoa, verbal case suffix)
Verb Morphology
Sumerian
modal prefix + conjugation prefix + case suffix + pronominal suffix +
verb root + pronominal suffix + syntactic suffix + postposition
Austric
Ponapean
casuative prefix + (negative, demonstrative, adjectival) prefix +
verb root +instrumental suffix + object pronoun suffix + 3rd position
suffix + 4th position suffix + 5th position suffix + object pronoun suffix +
completive suffix
Melanesian
verbal particle + reciprocal prefix + causative prefix + verb root +
verbal suffix + adjectival termination + personal pronoun suffix
Kapampangan
new + activativiser + processiviser + causativiser + exertiviser +
participativiser +abilitaviser + verb root + paired suffix
Animate and Inanimate Categories
Both Sumerian and Austric also share the division of animate
and inanimate categories. This is generally carried out through
the pronouns and pronominal elements in both Sumerian and Austric.
Special Speech
Sumerian possesses a woman's and liturgical language known
as Emesal. Such special languages occur commonly in the Austric
family. Truk, Simalurese and Japanese have traces of woman's
languages. New Javanese, Sundanese, Madurese, Balinese, Samoa,
Tonga, Ponape, Turk, Kusae and Japanese are among the languages
that have special word classes according to various forms of
social stratification.
Consonant sounds in Sumerian/Austric
All of the consonants in Sumerian are found in
the Austric languages with the possible exception
of a second h sound suggested by I.M. Diakonoff.
Naturally, many sounds found in modern Austric are
not found in Sumerian. Some of the more interesting
correspondences are:
g~
Another "phonetic solution" to this phoneme is
|ng| as suggested by Miguel Civil.
dr
This phoneme is suggested for reconstructed Proto-Oceanic
and as a cluster in Austro-Tai. |D| and |r| are alternating
consonants within many Austric languages. However, in
Sumerian |dr| is found as a final sound.
l
Two |l| sounds are suggested for Sumerian as one appears
to be dropped as a final consonant in Auslaut. Two
|l| sounds are suggested for both Proto-Austronesian
and Austro-Thai.
r
Two |r| sounds are also suggested for Sumerian based on
the same argument for the sound |l|. Austro-Thai
has two |r| sounds, and Austronesian has |r| and
retroflex |r|.
Vowel sounds in Sumerian/Austric
Interestingly, while the |o| sound is found in Austro-Tai
and Austric, it is suggested that it was not found
in Proto-Austronesian. The current |o| sound in Austronesian
is said to be a reflex of the Proto-Austronesian u sound.
Sumerian also lacks the |o| sound.
Austric does not have correspondence to the possible
nasalized vowels suggeted by A. Falkenstein.
It has been suggested that Sumerian possessed both long
and short vowels. This would help cut down on the large
number of apparent homonyms in the language. Austro-
Thai has both long and short vowels as do the modern
Kadai languages.
ng in Sumerian
For the presence of labialized velar and nasalized labio-velars,
ng, ngm and ngw see Civil, Miguel, "The Sumerian writing system:
some problems," Orientalia Nova Series, 1973, Rome, pg. 31, 61.
The ng cluster is one of the most common phonological traits found
throughout the Austric family.
g~ in initial position
The use of g~ in the initial position such as in words like
g~iri and g~al is a very rare trait in the world's languages,
but very common in Austric languages. Generally, words with
initial g~ belong to groups of words with special meanings.
The Sumerian g~a.e "I," might find a parallel in words like Kasi,
nga "I," War, nge "I," and the common ing "I," in the Munda languages.
(Also, nga "I," Manam, Marshallese; ngoah, Mokilese; ngehi,
Ponapean, ngai "I," Lavukaleve, Takia, Megiar, nga "I,"
Mindiri, Sepa, Bilbil, Gedaged)
Consonant alternation in Sumerian
This alternation is evidenced by the prefixes ha- and
ga- and also by the use of the sign HA for ku "fish," in
Sumerian. In Austric, this is a common alteration between
different languages like hami "we," and kami "we;" and
hamu "you," and gamu "you."
M. Yoshiwara compares consonant variation in Japanese
with that in Sumerian. Using his research, we will
add some very preliminary findings using other Austric
languages. Many of the consonant variations found
in Sumerian are related to phonetic changes between
standard Sumerian and Emesal, while changes in Austric
are often morphological in nature.
Sumerian Austric
b:g ibi:igi "eye" tabane:tagane "bundle" (Japanese)
belimbing/galiming "a fruit" (Malay/Orang Laut)
b:m bur:mur "to dress" buchi:muchi "whip" (Japanese)
bayani:magani "hero" (Philippines, dialect variation)
mabawa:mamawa ""bring" (Sundanese)
bu?:mu? "shoot" (Atayal)
d:g adar:agar "district" kudi:kugi "nail" (Japanese)
d:h de:he "let" domeku:homeku "hot" (Japanese)
d.undheu:hundheu "to search" (Munda, morphological)
dito:heto "here" Tagalog
d:z udu:eze "sheep" ada:aza "birthmark" (Japanese)
g:h geleg:halam "destroy" magaru:maharu "to turn around" (Japanese)
gul mal:hul mal "noise, disturbance" (Munda)
g:n sag:shen "head" kugi:kuni "nail" (Japanese)
h:r hush:rush "red,angry" hashikoi:kashikoi "wise" (Japanese)
heto:rito "here" (Tagalog)
maori:maohi "Polynesian" (Polynesia, language variation)
m:n munus:nunus "woman" mada:nada "not yet" (Japanese)
mag-:nag-, conjugation prefix (Philippines, morphological)
n:r na:ra "when" namu:ramu, auxillary verb (Japanese)
rava`i:nava`i "to be adequate" (Tahitian)
n:sh nin:shen "lady" beni:beshi "because" (Japanese)
nila:sila, 3rd person pl. pronoun (Philippines, morphological)
s:z sum:zeg "to give" someku:zomeku "to be noisy" (Japanese)
sh:z shi:zi "breath" shena:nakaze "brother" (Japanese)
r:l gibir:gibil common r:l in Melanesian languages
Is Sumerian a focus language?
In her article, "Toward Focus in Austronesian," (IN S.A. Wurm,
Lois Carrington (eds), Second International Conference on
Austronesian Linguistics: Proceedings, Canberra, 1978)
Paz Buenaventura Naylor states that focus "underlies
verbal predication" in Austronesian languages. She calls
focus the "family trait" of Austronesian that covers the
qualities known as voice, transitivity and aspect.
Sumerian conjugation affixes appear to distinguish between
agentive and non-agentive and this may suggest that it was
a focus language. Here is a comparison of affixes in
Sumerian with some Austronesian affixes:
Sumerian Austronesian
mu- (agentive) mag- (agentive, Philippines)
ma- (agentive, Philippines)
-m- (agentive?) -m- (agentive, Paiwan)
men- (agentive, Indonesia)
m- (agentive-statement, Proto-Austronesian,
Zorc)
ba- (non-agentive) pa- (non-agentive, Kapampangan)
pa- (non-agentive) pa-in (definite passive, Philippines)
pag- (verbal noun prefix, Philippines)
paki- (passive request, Tagalog)
i-* (instrumental?) i-* (instrumental, Philippines)
In Philippine languages, the prefix i- usually denotes:
doing something for another. It can also express the means
or instrument of action, and the cause, time or place of action.
From some of the examples given by Thomsen, we find such usage
seems common with the Sumerian prefix i- (Thomsen, The
Sumerian language, 56-57).
The verb "to be" and "to become"
In Sumerian, the verb "to be" is me, and it is sometimes
used interchangeably with the word "like" = "ge". In Japanese,
"ge" also means "like," and -meku is a suffix meaning
"being" or "becoming like." In other Austronesian languages,
we have -men as a suffix meaning "to be," and maging means
"to be" or "to become" in the Philippines. Similar particles
like mag-, ma-, men-, maka-, etc., are used in various Austronesian
languages with action words to emphasize the agent. Gana
is Proto-Austronesian for "likeness," and there are related
words like gaya in the Philippines which means "like."
Consonant alternation of morphs/morphemes
In Austronesian we see a common alternation of verbal affixes that involves active/agentive type verbs in |m|, passive/non-agentive type verbs in |p| and verbal nouns, especially in expression of whole, in |n|.
In many cases, these affixes involve a second consonant in either n/m or g/k. If we take the interchange of words or affixes meaning "like" such as Proto-Austronesian "gana" and "to be, become" such as "maging," "-men," or "-meku," we can postulate that the second consonant in the prototype might have been "ng" from which we could easily get n, k, g, y and so on. There would be correspondence in Sumerian in the suffix -men "to become," and the prefix "nig-" which transforms a verb/noun/adjective into a noun.
Correspondence in word/morph classes
There exists a similarity in Sumerian third person pronouns, demonstrative pronouns, interrogative pronouns and pronominal affixes in en, an, n, etc. Such similarity can also be found across languages in Austric. In Melanesian languages we find it in third person pronouns, third person possessive suffixes, demonstratives and in a few cases of pronominal affixes. Munda languages share the similarity in pronominal suffixes and third person possessive suffixes, while in Malay languages it is found in third person possessive suffixes, demostratives and interrogatives.
This list of possible correspondences between Sumerian and Austric will be augmented periodically with new entries in bold text.
uto "Sun" Sumerian
ad- Gedaged, Bilbil, Takia
aad- Biliau,
ake-ake- Kuanua,
adaw- Kadai,
adraw- Indonesia,
aldo- Kapampangan, Ifugao
adlaw- Aklanon, Bikol, Cebuano, Illonggo,
udtroadlaw- "noon," Aklanon,
udto- "noon," Bikol, Cebuano,
ugto- "noon," Illongo.
aga- "morning," Illonggo, Bikol,
agahon- "morning," Aklanon.
ud "day" Sumerian
ange- Loda,
ari- Bacan,
adaw- Kadai,
andaw- Manobo,
adraw- Indonesia,
adlaw- Aklanon, Bikol, Cebuano, Illongo,
aldo- Kapampangan
andro- Malagasy,
ad- Papuan (Austronesian)
udtroadlaw- "noon," Aklanon,
udto- "noon," Bikol, Cebuano,
ugto- "noon," Illonggo.
aga- "morning," Illonggo, Bikol,
agahon- "morning," Aklanon.
ur "man, humans" Sumerian
uran- Cham
uru- Osum,
oran- Malay,
orot- Ubir,
oerang- Bacan,
oloto- Taupota, Kakabai,
ari- Sakao,
aris- Unua,
arar- Port Sandwich, Mae-Morae,
aru- Tate, Api,
olona- Malagasy,
orotona- "male," Wedau,
uri- "race, species," Philippines.
ur "dog" Sumerian
uri- Tahiti
uli- Samoa,
k-uri- Indonesia, Yatuk, Iarkei, Lenakel, Ikiti,
kurii- Tikopian,
korii- Anutan,
kuli- Tavio, Yeval, Bonkovia, Pt. Vato.
sila "path, avenue, trail, road" Sumerian
silang- Philippines,
sala- Peterara, Nevenevene, Tam, Nasawa, Narovorovo, Baetora,
Mafea, Tutuba, Aore, Malo,
sal- Lolsiwoi, Seke, Sa, Sowa,
sel- Uri, Uripiv, Tautu, Maragus,
sili- Port Vato,
seli- Baiap, Sesivi.
sar "to write, inscribe" Sumerian
sulatin- Philippines,
sorga- "writing," Pagu,
sulat- "writing," Philippines,
surat- "to write," Ilokano.
pana "bow and arrow" Sumerian
pana- common Austric from Hawai'i to Madgascar,
fana- Aniwa, Futuna, Makatea, Fila, Mele.
lah "to propel a boat" Sumerian
la - "sail" common Polynesian
lai- "sail" Malagasy,
layar- "to sail," Malay,
layag- "sail," Philippines,
lumayag- "to sail," Philippines,
lae- "sail" Eton.
kur "mountain" Sumerian
kor Proto-Oceanic
goro- Sinagoro,
golo- Manggarai,
gor- Proto-East Central Papuan.
tolo- hills; Saa, Ulawa,
toro- hills; Wango,
toro-puki- mound, Maori,
koro- heap, Viti,
tolo- to rise, Florida,
kari- mountain, Kewa,
gulod- mountain, Tagalog,
gorot- mountain, Igorot,
turod- hill, Ilokano.
giba "night, early morning" Sumerian
gabi- "night," Tagalog
gabi-i- "night," Aklanon, Cebuano, Illongo,
tapo- "night," Aniwa, Futuna.
dumu "child" Sumerian, also damu "child."
dama- Kapingamarangi, Nukuoro,
kama- Hawai'i,
tama- Anutan, Fila, Mele, Maori,
tung- Ranon, Fona,
tuna- Gao,
tene- Nengone.
dug "word, command, to speak" Sumerian
tukua- Aniwa, Futuna
takua- Mele,
tokua- Fila,
tugon- "reply, answer" Tagalog,
tugma- "rhymes" Tagalog,
tukoy- "indirect reference, allusion, mention" Tagalog,
tudyo- "a tease, parody" Tagalog,
tukuyin- "to point out, specify" Tagalog,
taki- "to lead, to give directions," Anutan.
dam "spouse" Sumerian
kama- "first husband" Hawai'i,
tememem- "husband" Merlav,
tama-raxa- "husband" Nasawa,
tamaine tungu- "husband" Wailengi, Lolomatui,
temem ekie- "husband" Hiw,
tamlus- "husband" Hukua,
tamanatu- "husband" Malo North,
teme natuk- "husband" Vao.
dagal "to be, make wide" Sumerian
dagul- "to be, make large," Kapampangan
dakula- " " " " Bikol,
dako- " " " " Cebuano, Illongo,
dakila- "great," Tagalog,
dakkel- "big, great," Ilokano.
ga "milk" Sumerian
gatas- Tagalog
buru "fruit" Sumerian
pele- Malay,
phle- Khmer,
plei- Bahnar,
vulu- Paiwan,
bua, vua- Melanesia,
fua- Polynesia,
felan- "blossom" Malagasy
para- "to blossom, flower," Tuamotu,
fola- "to spread out like vegetation," Tonga,
bula-k- "flower," Indonesia, Malay, Philippines,
bluak- "flower," Tai,
blook- "flower," Thai.
pua- "flower," Polynesia,
puru- "bundle of fruit," Selepet.
bal "to return" Sumerian
balik- "to return," Philippines,
perik- "to turn" Shark Bay I,
poria- "to turn" Penantsiro, Morouas,
-bilih- "to turn" Vinmavis
baling- "to turn" Philippines.
aya "father" Sumerian
ayah- Indonesia,
aay- Tai,
aja- Pagu,
aya, aiye, ayi- Torricelli Phylum, Sakai
ajah- Proto-Austronesian.
ama "mother" Sumerian
uma- Mundari,
ama- Malay, Fasu, Kewa, Beami,
ama - "female guardian, female authority," Tagalog
bulog "circle" Sumerian
bilog- Kapampangan, Tagalog.
ga "fish" Sumerian
ka- common Austro-Asiatic,
i-ka- common Austronesian,
da- common Austronesian,
ke- "whale" Lehali, Bek,
ki- "whale" Wetamut.
nin "lady, queen, mistress" Sumerian
nana- "mother, " Lepaxsivir, Baiap, Tagalog, Arosi, Chamorro, Tikopian
naana- "mother, "Woleaian
nanu- "mother, "Kwale
nohna- "mother, "Ponapean
nen - "mother, "Nengone
nen - "mother, "Maxbaxo
ne - "mother, "Burmbar
nun - "mother, "Mae, Larevat
nine - "mother, "Maat
nino - "mother, "Toak
niinnae - "mother, "Yap
nin "sister" Sumerian
nene- younger or youngest sister; common Philippines,
na- younger sister, Kadai,
na- mother's younger sister, Mak,
nana- mother's sister, Fiji (Vuda Lautoka),
nane- older sister, Awa,
nanoa- older sister, Auyana,
nanoi- older sister, Gadsup.
ku "to eat" Sumerian, also gu "to eat."
ga- to eat, Savari, Gadaba,
kai- to eat, Ang-ku, Mong-Lwe, Aniwa, Futuna, Fila,
kye- to eat, A Mok,
cha- to eat, Sakai,
chi- to eat, Semang,
gin- to eat, Thani,
kan- to eat, Medebur, Wogeo, Arop,
kain- to eat, Tagalog.
pil "to make dirty, defiled, obscure" Sumerian
pala-hea- dirty, defiled; Hawai'i,
balah- dirt, foulness; Sunda,
bolo- dirty, Merlav,
pipili- dirty, Raga,
palo- dirty, Aniwa, Futuna,
parau- dirty, Pwele,
prau- dirty, Lelepa,
peram- dirty, Eton.
galu "man" Sumerian
kol- Munda,
kur- Malay,
tor- Burumba,
tolomo- Ninowa,
tali- person, Shark Bay, Lorediakarkar,
taru- person, Bonkovia.
lu "man" Sumerian
lai- male, man; Sika,
lameng- male, Sika,
lama- man, Tumleo,
laman- man, Jukua,
leman- man, Nokuku,
laline- man, Lorediadardar Shark Bay,
lanale- man, Aore,
lamane- man, Tangoa,
lananea- man,Tambotalo,
laki?- male, man; common Western Austronesian.
munus "woman" Sumerian
main- Kaiep,
mnie- Rhade,
mane-maneka- New Georgia,
momok- Katbol,
mwomwok- Timbembe,
no-moymoy- Lingarak,
menandr- Orap,
no-momox- Vinmavis,
ni-momo- Lebinwen, Benour,
n-matu- Eratap, Eton,
n-matu- Pango,
ma, mama- mother, common Austric,
mune- married woman, Balawaia.
tar "to cut," Sumerian,
tar- Nume, Dorig, Koro, Lakona, Merig, Proto-Austronesian,
tare- Wetamut, Toga,
tere- Wusi-Valui,
-dali- Sowa,
-tar- Larevat,
-teri- Vinmavis,
-tere- Benour,
-tiri- Malfaxal,
tori- "to cut end off," Maori, Saa, Ulawa.
tud "to strike, beat" Sumerian
tut- Hiw, Toga, Lehali, Mota, Mosina, Tam, Vetumboso,
tutu- Lakona,
duki- Sesake,
tuki- Anutan,
tu- common Polynesian,
tuk-tok- to knock at door, Tagalog,
tug-tug- to play instrument, ring bell, strike gong; Tagalog.
tag "to touch" Sumerian
tagki- touch, Philippines,
tagkilan- to touch, Philippines,
tangko- light touch, Tagalog,
taapi- to touch, Anutan.
sig "to yoke, harness" Sumerian
saklay yoke, Philippines,
sakbat- band across shoulders, to carry on shoulders; Tagalog,
sakbibi- something carried on arms or hips, like baby; Tagalog,
sakay- passenger, cargo, Philippines.
gal "big, large, great" Sumerian, also gula "great."
karu- great, Austro-Asiatic,
kadui- great, Malay,
tele- great, Samoa,
garig- big, Lakona,
koura- big, Onjob,
tora- big, Doromo,
toere- - heavy, Doromo,
torona- big, Lametin,
tare- big, Nambel,
tariu- big, Narango,
taura- big, Filakera,
turu- big, Burumba,
terop- heavy, Mpotovoro,
turop- heavy, Vovo.
kal, gal "to be, make precious" Sumerian
galing excellence, goodness; Philippines,
garea- good, goodness; Lolsiwoi, Tam, Nevenevene,
karea- goodness; Wailengi, Lolomatui,
kare- goodness, Ngwatua.
kala "mighty, strong" Sumerian
kila- strong, stout, able; Hawai'i,
tala- strong, Austronesian.
gir "noble" Sumerian
gilas- gallantry, Tagalog,
giri- strutting of cock, strutting about like cock, Philippines,
tira-tira- to invest with authority, Tahiti,
ra'a-tira- chief, Tahiti,
ranga-tira- chief, Maori,
turuwa- chief, Awa,
turuama- chief, Auyana.
ba "to give" Sumerian, also ba "rations, wages."
ba- to give, Paz,
wa- to give, Ruk,
pa- to give, Thao,
bigay- to give, Philipines,
foake- to give, Maori, Tuamotus, Rarotonga,
patuau- to give, Sesake,
pitua- to give, Nguna, Woraviu,
ptu- to give, Pango,
bayad- payment, damages; Philippines.
me "to be" Sumerian, also -men "to be."
men- - Isabi, Tauya,
min- - Biyom,
maging- Philippines,
ni- Angaua, Paynamar.
kur, kar "to enclose, assemble, group," Sumerian
kur, kar- to assemble, connect, enclose; common
Austro-Asiatic.
uru "city" Sumerian
kur city, common Austric,
koro- village, Proto-Oceanic.
ud "storm," ur "storm," Sumerian
uta- rain, Arosi, Lau,
ute pii- heavy rain, Solomon Is.,
uka- rain, Fiji,
h-udan- rain, Indonesia
uru- storm, Japanese.
udan- rain, Ifugao.
tur "small" Sumerian
kala-kela- Mele,
ke-kela- Fila,
kereng-gasi- Burupika,
kile- Kerepua, Wusi-Valui
kolo- Raga,
kile-kile- Matae, Nonona,
juring- Mundari
tur "child" Sumerian
kari, kali, etc.- child, common Melanesian.
terera- child, Ambrym,
dale- child, Florida,
karikik- child, Sesake,
gari- Bugota,
kol- man, Munda,
kur- man, Malay,
tor- man, Burumba,
tolomo- man, Ninowa,
tali- person, Shark Bay, Lorediakarkar,
taru- person, Bonkovia.
kora- boy, lad; Santali,
kola- boy, Sora,
kora hapa- boy; Kherwari, Santali,
kora hau- boy; Mundari,
kuri-hapan- girl, Kherwari, Santali, Savara,
kuri-hau- girl, Mundari.
kalam "land" Sumerian
kere- land, earth; Fila, Mele, Aniwa, Futuna,
dare- land, earth; Proto-Ambonese,
dareq- earth, Proto-Austronesian.
kula- �field, uncultivated land," Hawaii,
kula- �locality,� Samoa,
kulem- basin, Sundanese.
sukud "to be, make high" Sumerian
sake, sakay- up, upwards, upward indicator; common Polynesia and Melanesia.
saka- to ascend, Cebuano, Samar-Leyte,
sa:kaq- to ascend, Hiligaynon.
sagga "happy" Sumerian
saya- happy, Philippines,
sadya- happy, Proto-Philippine,
sayasak- happy, Ilocano,
suka- happy, Malay,
sara- happy, Lau,
hari- happy, Maori.
an "sky, heaven" Sumerian
ame, ama- heaven, Japanese,
anin- air, Teor.,
angi- air, Nias, "breeze," Mangar.,
ani- breeze, Hawai'i,
anghin- air, wind; Malagasy,
h-angin- wind, breeze; Philippines.
asag "demon that causes sickness" Sumerian
asu-wang- �demon, spirit, a man capable of changing form, Philippines
suang- �demon, devil,� Tai, �genii," Siamese,
saang- �god, demon,� Thai,
usong- �spirit,� Telefol,
sakit- "sickness," Philippines.
sakit- demon that causes illness; Tonsea Tombulo, Tondano.
sigga "weak" Sumerian
sigam- consumptive, Tagalog,
sika- suffering from dysentery, Ilocano,
sikal- suffering from pains in abdomen, Ilocano,
sigab- having a long illness, Bontok,
sakit- illness, disease; Philippines.
geme "temple prostitute" Sumerian
gam=e- widow, Pisa,
gamtu- wife, Lakona,
ginang- "lady, elder woman of dignity," Tagalog,
geni- "wife, woman" Proto-Malaitan,
geni- "woman," Lau, Kwaio,
keni- "wife, woman," Saa, Ulawa,
keni- "female, woman," Are'are,
ke-keni- "wife, woman," Mota,
a-gen- "wife," Dumut,
a-gan- "wife," Awyu.
kalum "temple priest" Sumerian
kulam- sorcery, magic; Philippines, with prefix
sorcerer, magician, witchdoctor."
ri "yonder, distant" Sumerian
raa, ra- distant in time or space, common Polynesian and Melanesian,
idi- "indicates time in past," Ilokano,
idiay- "indicates distant place," Ilokano.
igi "eye" Sumerian
t-ingin- eye, Tagalog
pan-ingin- eye, Tagalog,
h-ingo- eye, Kapau,
ma-k-ita- eye, Parawen, Yorawata,
te, de- eye, Papuan,
ta, da- eye, Austro-Tai,
ang-k eye, Danaru,
ege- eye, Usu,
agi-utu- eye, Duduela,
engge- eye, Usino,
ite-c eye,- Meax,
oto- eye, Samahi,
atsing eye, Mt. Goliath,
ite-ja- eye, Meninggo,
enggio- eye, Dem,
eki- eye, Suma.
ugu- "over, above" Sumerian
ake- up, upward, to ascend; Anutan,
uka, uta- towards mountains, inland; Polynesia,
akyat- to rise, ascend; Tagalog,
angkat- to lift, Indonesia; to be elevated, Ngaju-Dyak,
ascent, Hova,
atas, atat- above, Proto-Austronesian,
ake- upward indicator, Polynesia,
ata- up, Nakanai.
tumu "to win over to" Sumerian
tamuhin- to acquire, realize; Philippines.
tumu "to be right for, destined for" Sumerian
tama- correct, right, true; Philippines,
tamaan- to hit the target, be right; Philippines.
tame- correct, Labo,
tamari- correct, good; Aniwa.
tuku "to tremble" Sumerian
teki- to tremble, Anutan,
takariri- to shake, Anutan.
tuku "to acquire, possess" Sumerian
takaw- greed, covetousnes; Philippines,
takam- desire, Philippines,
takaw- to steal, Ilokano.
melam "splendor" Sumerian
malimali- ostentation, showiness; Philippines.
lu "to stretch" Sumerian
lau- to spread, expand; Hawai'i,
laha- to spread, extend; Hawai'i,
lat-lat- to stretch, Philippines,
luwas- broad, extended; Sunda.
gul "to destroy" Sumerian
guluhin- to bring on disorder,to confuse; Philippines,
gulo- riot, confusion; Philippiines,
gulungan- to run over, Philippines.
gu "rope, thread" Sumerian
gie- rope; Hiw,
ga- rope; Nume, Mosina, Vetumboso, Wetamut, Merlav,
gao- rope; Baetora, Navenevene, Tam,
gau- rope; Narovorovo,
guyuran- draw rope, Philippines.
mah "to be, make great" Sumerian
ma- - "intensive prefix," common Austric,
maha- "much, many, prefix" Maori,
mah, mahu- "much," Malagasy, Sunda.
duru "humid, irrigated" Sumerian
kuala- "canal, watercourse," Malagasy,
kulu- "to flow as water," Hawaii,
turu- "to drop as water," Fiji.
kolo- "water," Roviana,
kolo- "lake, rain water," Florida.
dirig "exceeding, excellent, additional" Sumerian
dilag- beauty, splendor; Philippines,
dilat- wide open, to open eyes; Philippines
sa "name" Sumerian
se- - name, Sowa,
sei- - name, Lorediakarkar,
so- - name, Tambotalo,
se-n- name, Butmas,
sa-ng- name; Ranon, Fonah,
si-k- name, Sa,
sa-ki- name; Mate, Nul, Lamenu, Filakara.
sa-sa- name: Proto-Austronesian.
dun "to dig" Sumerian
kanu- to dig, Hawai'i,
tanu- to dig, Samoa, Tonga, Maori, Tahiti, Anutan, Rarotonga,
tanam- to bury, Java, Malaysia.
zalag "to be/make bright" Sumerian
sulu- to shine, Proto-Oceanic,
sila- to shine, Proto-Philippine,
sarang- refulgent, Tagalog,
sulu- light, Kapampangan,
zelag- to shine, Proto-Philippine (Zorc and Charles),
sellag- bright or full (of the moon), Ilokano,
sarang- the human ear when light can be seen through it
when viewed in a certain way, Ilokano.
gaba "breast" Sumerian
qaba- breast of fowl; Hiligaynon, Samar-Leyte,
ga:ba- breast of fowl, Bikol.
bila "to turn" Sumerian
vila- to turn, Kiriwina,
vi-viri- to turn, Anuki,
vira- to turn, Proto-Milne Bay,
baling- Philippines,
fariu- Makatea,
-bilih- Vinmavis,
-bil- Bonga., Tonga., Makura,
-bilo- Lameno,
firiu- Fila, Mele,
poria- Morouas, Penatsiro,
fuli- Proto-Polynesian,
baliq- Proto-Austronesian,
pulih- Proto-Austronesian.
abu "father" Sumerian
abu - Mukawa
avu - Ubir, Wedau
apu-t - Kherwari, Santali
apu - Mundari
aba, ba - Kurku
apang, abbani - Gadaba
a-pan - Salon
a-puk - Khmer
aba - Formosan Paz, Sai, Ata
apu, apo - Philippines
tin "liquid" Sumerian
tano- "water," Vunapu,
tunu- "left-over water," New Hebrides,
dan- "water," Kis, Wogeo, Bam,
dano- "water," Nonona,
danum- "water," Proto-Austronesian.
tun "whole" Sumerian
tanan- "whole," Maranao,
tenig- "whole animal," Bontok,
tanek- "whole," Proto-Philippine.
gaba-gin "to oppose, confront," Sumerian, and kabus? "guardian, keeper."
gapiin- to subdue, conquer; Philippines,
ga:pa- to prohibit; Iloko,
gapa- to forbid, Kankanai,
kapu, tapu- to restrict, forbid, interdict; Hawai'i, Polynesia.
gana "field, farm" Sumerian
gano- earth, garden, plot; Lau,
qainaa- garden; Saa, Ulawa.
as "one" Sumerian
esa- Proto-Philippine, Proto-Ambonese, Proto-Austronesian,
isa- Tagalog,
ose- Penantsiro,
ese- Matae, Akei, Fortsenal, Nonona, Malmariv, Navut, Lametin.
inim "words, speech" Sumerian
aman(ung)- "words, speech, language" Kapampangan.
ila "to shine" Sumerian
ilaw- light, Tagalog,
ila- fire, Gogodala,
ira- fire, Awa, Fasu
ara- fire, Kaygir,
ira- fire, Kwale,
era- fire, Kiwai,
illu "high water, flood, fluid," Sumerian
ilog "river," Philippines
ara, ra "to shine, blaze, be bright," Sumerian
raa- to shine, Malaitan,
ra, raa- sunlight, Melanesia,
rai- to shine, Polynesia,
lae- bright, clear, shining; Hawai'i,
lai- shining of sea, Hawai'i,
raka- to make fire, Solomon Is.
laki- fire, Motu,
lake- fire, Vaturana,
a-raka- fire, Suki,
liko- to glisten, shine, Hawai'i,
riko- to shine brightly, Tuamotu
riko- dazzling; Maori, Tuamotu.
ria, rian- to shine, Tai,
riko- to shine, Tuamotu,
izi "fire," Sumerian
asie- fire, Arosi,
usu- fire, Asenara, Moni,
asuwain- fire, Ulau-Suain,
ahi- fire, Maori, Teor., Goram,
ahu- burnt, scalded; Tahiti,
ahe- fire, Banjak Is.,
ahu- heat, fever; Tahiti,
ahu- fire, Buru,
ahang- fire; Laul, Lironesa,
ahango- fire, Faulili,
afi- fire, Fila, Mele, Futuna,
isa- fire, Maranomu, Maria, Maiagolo,
izi- fire, Binandere,
asu- smoke, Samoa
aso- smoke, Tagalog,
usa- fire, Warkay.
bul, bil "to sprout," Sumerian
bira �to sprout, grow,� Lau,
piro �to shoot, sprout,� Are�are,
bila �to sprout,� Kwaio,
bila�o �to grow, Kwaio,
pariri �to shoot up, grow,� Maori,
pula-pula "to sprout, shoot,� Hawaii,
bora �to grow, sprout,� Efate,
vara �to grow,� Motu,
biri �to grow,� Oba,
vora �to grow stout,� Fiji,
mula "to plant," Ilokano.
sur "to flow, to rain, drip," Sumerian
sari- to flow, Aore, Mafea,
saro- to flow, Peterara,
sara- to flow, Woraviu, Sesake, Nguna, Pwele, Siviri, Lelepa, Fila,
ser- to flow, Eratap, Eton,
soro-soro- to flow, Ngwatua,
sileng- water, Apma,
serik- rain, Shark Bay I
serk- rain, Lorediakarkar,
seri- rain, Shark Bay II,
surong- upstream, Ilokano.
suku "to flare up, to shine," Sumerian
sug-aq- light; Cebuano, Hiligaynon, Samar-Leyte,
sig-ak- conflagaration, Tagalog,
soata- bright, Proto-Polynesian.
dara, dar "dark, dim," Sumerian
kor-kor- black, Vatrata, Vetumboso
kur-kur- black, Sasar, Mosina,
golu- black, Alite,
qole-qole- black, Murray Is.,
korema-korema- black, Motu,
kur-kuram- dark, black; Nissan,
kele- black, Proto-Polynesian,
kuro- black, Japanese.
ugnim "crowd, army, workgang," Sumerian
hunga- �company of people, group,� Maori,
hui- �to join, connect, mix, assemble, assembly, union,� Hawaii,
aukahi- �united, flowing together,� Hawaii,
ugnay- �union, connection,� Tagalog,
ugnayan- �to unite, join, connect, increase, make long,� Tagalog,
aug-wiya- �to join,� Auyana.
bil "to burn, roast," Sumerian
wela- "to burn," Hawai`i,
bara- "fire," Malay,
poroma- "to burn," Waropen,
parom- "to roast," Biak,
por- "fire," Dusner,
for- "fire," Ron,
pare- "to cook," Busami,
wero- "to flame up," Are'are,
balu- "red-hot," Lau,
bulu- "torch," Lau,
beriai- "to burn," Papua-Niugini,
balae- "to burn," Sopese Polopa.
mu "to grow, produce, reproduce, sprout" Sumerian
mu- to give birth, produce, spawn," Japanese,
mula- to plant; Ilocano, Bontok, Isneg, Sambal, Ibaneg,
mula- source, origin; Philippines,
mula- "from, since, then" Philippines,
mole- taproot of tree, bottom, foundation, cause; Hawai'i,
mu- trunk of; Fiji, Mosimo, Yoidik, Rempi.
dundun "to prepare warp for weaving," Sumerian
d.and.an- "to weave," Indonesia,
tenun- "to weave," Proto-Austronesian,
tata- "to weave," Arosi,
tenutun- "to weave," Proto-Austronesian.
tia- "to weave," Proto-Polynesian.
kangkang- "to stretch," Proto-Austronesian.
tab "to burn," Sumerian
tafu make fire; Samoa, Tonga
tavu-tavu- to burn down, Fiji
tavu-cawa- steam bath, Fiji
dapug- hearth, oven, Indonesia
dapu- hearth, Proto-Oceanic
dapog- fireside, Tagalog
tap, tapak- Sun, Papuan
kapu- fire, Fate, Sesake
kapi- fire, Api
tapa- to burn, Manggarai
tapu- to put wood on a fire so it will burst into flame, Anutan.
banda "child," Sumerian
bainta - "child," Tairora
bata - "child," Tagalog, Cebuano, Kapampangan, Manobo
baka - "child," Vaturana
bitiir - "child," Yap
boot - "son," Thai
poti�i - "infant," Samoa
pota - "infant," Anutan
pootiki - "infant," Maori
potii - "girl," Tahiti
potiti - small, Marquesas
budak, bunting- (child) Proto-Austronesian
bala - people, Malay, Tidore, Sobojo, Kadai
banta - man, person, people Gadsup
sun "shine, star" Sumerian
sine- "torch, shine," Samoa,
sina- "to shine," Proto-Oceanic, Proto-Philippine, Proto-Malaitan,
sinag- "sun," Fiji,
sinag- "rays of light," Tagalog,
In some cases, examples from the non-Austronesian languages of Papua
New Guinea are used. There are two groups in that region, Austronesian
and non-Austronesian, and they both have influenced each other.
JUMSAI, Sumet, Naga: cultural origins in Siam and the West Pacific, Singapore, 1988.
MANANSALA, Paul Kekai, "The Austric Origin of the Brahmana and Rishi Traditions," International Journal of Dravidian Linguistics, vol.xxiv, no.2, jun.95.
_,"The Austric Origin of the Sumerian Language," Language Form, vol. 22, no.1-2, Jan.-Dec. 1996.
__,The Naga Race, Calcutta, 1994.
__,"Austric in India," International Journal of Dravidian Linguistics, vol. XXVIII, no.1.
THOMSEN, Marie-Louise, The Sumerian language: introduction to its history and grammatical structure, Copenhagen, 1984.
YOSHIWARA, R., Sumerian and Japanese, Japan, 1991.
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