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As mentioned in the previous section, at the
time of this letter the Three Indias
referred to India Major, from Malabar through
the East Indies, India Minor, from Malabar
to Sind, and India Tertia, the east coast
of Africa.
This tripartite division comforms to the contemporary
Muslim concept of Hind, Sind and Zanj with the last India
referring specifically to the area around present-day
coastal Tanzania.
Wolfram von Eschenbach, in the epic poem Parzival, which
was written about half a century after Prester John's
letter, confirms the location of Prester John in the Indies.
He links the ruler with a kingdom known as Tribalibot
in India 'near the Ganges.'
While it is popular today to claim that the correspondence
of the Pope and European kings with Prester John was an elaborate hoax,
substanial scholarship in the area suggests something quite different.
Prester John's intial letter addressed to Manuel of
Byzantinum, Frederick Barbarossa and others did not
just simply suddenly appear in circulation throughout Europe.
It was brought to the courts of the Byzantine and Holy Roman
emperors by actual ambassadors from the court of
Prester John himself in 11651!
Later in 1177, Philippus the physician of Pope Alexander III
brought another letter addressed to the Pope from Prester John after meeting
with representatives of the king2. There is some dispute
over whether Philippus actually claimed to have visited
Prester John's court.
The letter to the Pope contained requests to build a church
in Rome, an altar in Jerusalem and to receive instructions
regarding the Catholic religion.
Alexander III responded by sending Philippus back with his reply
to the kingdom of Prester John. No information is available
as to whether Philippus succeeded in his mission.
So not only was there correspondence between Prester John and
the emperors and Pope, but representatives of the King of the
Indies appeared in Europe. Also, Philippus himself may have
visited Prester John's court. Knowing these facts, it is hard
to come to any conclusion other than one giving the kingdom involved
in this correspondence an historical basis.
Was there any historical empire of the 12th
century that indeed extended over the
Three Indias?
There was one maritime empire that could possibly
fit if one only sees the dominion extending to
parts of the Three Indias. It was known in
Chinese texts as Sanfotsi and among the Muslims
as Zabag.
Sanfotsi/Zabag could fit the bill if one accepts the historical
texts at their word, which not all modern scholars are
willing to do.
Chinese geographical texts like the Chu-fan-chi (1225) of Chau Ju-Kua
mention that Sanfotsi ruled over numerous kingdoms within insular and
mainland Southeast Asia. They further extend the rule of
this kingdom to Si-lan or Ceylon.
The Muslim geography of al-Masudi confirms this latter claim when it
states that Zabag, widely considered the equivalent of the Chinese Sanfotsi,
ruled over Sirandib, the Arabic name for Ceylon.
Furthermore, the geography of Ma Tuan-lin (circa 1200)
states that Chou-lien, was a vassal of Sanfotsi, verifying
the same claim in the Sung-shih (960 - 1279). Chou-lien was
the Chinese name for the Chola empire of India3. Again, the
Chinese claim is verified by Arab geographers who state
that Kalikut was among the dependencies of Zabag.
The Chola emperor Rajendrachola claimed to have made some
conquests himself in the East Indies. However, his statements
have no support from independent sources, i.e., Chinese, Muslim
or other historians. Even Rajendrachola's son only claimed one of
these victories -- that of Kadaram, possibly the state
of Kataha in Malaysia.
The Chinese and Muslim accounts gain support
from substantial evidence of royal influence from insular Southeast
Asia in India at this time. Pali texts from 13th century
Ceylon mention "Savaka" princes on the island.
As mentioned earlier, Sanfotsi/Zabag was known by
the Indians as Suvarnadvipa:
(Al-Biruni, 1030 AD)
The monarchs of Suvarnadvipa were very active among the Cholas. In 1005, a
Suvarnadvipa king built a Buddhist vihara in the Chola state, which the
Chola king granted revenues4. In 1014-1015, gifts were sent for a Hindu temple5,
and again in 1018-10196. In the 1080s, the king of Suvarnadvipa built the
foundation for a Buddhist temple in South India7.
If we accept the historical claims of the Chinese and Muslim texts, then
two of the three Indias would be covered so far. Or at least we can say
that Sanfotsi/Zabag extended over significant parts of these two
Indias. But what about the third India in East Africa?
We know that at an earlier period, Austronesian seafarers from
insular Southeast Asia settled on the island of Madagascar forming
the Malagasy-speaking population of the island. However, not many
people are aware of the fact that during the medieval period, both regions maintained
substanial contact with each other.
The Book of the Wonders of India, written by a Muslim author mentions
in 945 an expeditionary raid off the East African coast by a fleet
of 1000 ships from the East Indies. Centuries later in 1154, the
Arab geographer Idrisi wrote in Kitab Rujjar that "the people of the
isles of Zabag come to the land of Zanj on small and large ships...for
they understand one another's languages." He also states: "The residents
of Zabag go to the land of Sofala (near Beira, Mozambique) and export the
iron from there supplying it to all the lands of India. No iron is comparable to
theirs in quality and sharpness."
Idrisi, whose patron was Roger II of Sicily, also states about trade expeditions
to Zanj: "The people of Komr (Khmer) and the merchants of the land of the Mihraj (ruler of
Zabag) come among them (the Zanj) and are well received and trade with them."
Tanzanian traditions suggest that there was a settlement around
Pemba and Zanzibar of a people they called the Debuli from “Diba” and Jawa8.
They were supposed to be responsible for planting the coconut palms and mangoes
along the Tanzanian coast. As we will examine in the section on the spice
routes the relationship between the Tanzanian coast and the East Indies may
extend back into deep antiquity. There are different theories as to
where Diba and Jawa refer, but one possibility is that Diba is a form of
Dabag, thought to be a Nestorian corruption of Zabag. Jawa can refer to
any number of East Indian locations such as Java, Sabah, Davao, Toubok, etc. The Debuli
were said to be a seafaring people whose ships had sails of coconut palm fiber.
That the kingdom of Sanfotsi/Zabag extended over a vast region that might
be said to span the "Three Indias" we have this quote from Mas'udi:
(Mas'udi, 943)
The greatest obstacle to equating the kingdom of Prester John
to Sanfotsi/Zabag come from that king's professed Christian religion.
However, we should note that even in Prester John's letter, he explains
that there are many "Gentile" nations in his empire, and that later
explorers into Asia had noted that his domains had quickly ceased to be Christian.
The problem might be solved by delving into the history of the Nestorian
Christian church in Southeast Asia and also the syncretic practices
that once abounded there.
In Asian tradition, it was common that if a king adopted a new religion, so did his whole
domain to some extent. However, before the advent of Abrahamic faiths,
a new religion did not mean necessarily discarding old beliefs. A king
and his subjects could patronize many religions at once, non-exclusively.
In a similar way, we find in modern Japan, that many people may follow
simultaneously the teachings and rituals of Shintoism, Buddhism and
Confucianism. In fact, the same people might at the same time celebrate
Christmas and opt for a Christian wedding ceremony.
In this sense, if a particular monarch decided to patronize the Nestorian
church,
he could rapidly implement this religion throughout his kingdom without
the same kind of disheaval that would be expected if the adoption was
exclusive of other faiths.
Researchers like S.H. Moffett and John England note that there is
substantial textual and artifactual evidence of the presence of
at least some Nestorian Christians throughout Southeast Asia prior to
1500.
As early as the 6th century, Cosmas Indicopleustes mentions Nestorians
from Siam. In his work, Descriptions of Chronicles and Monasteries of Egypt and some neighbouring countries,
the Persian Abu Saliah mentions during the 7th century, a Nestorian
church at Fansur, the Muslim name given to a kingdom in the Malay archipelago (probably
Borneo or Sumatra).
Moffett has noted the theory of a number of researchers that the rapid acceptance
of Christianity in the Philippines may have been due to the previous presence of
Nestorian influence9. Early Roman Catholics in the Philippines reported many
findings of apparently Nestorian Christian images in the country. The Filipino
scholar Pedro Paterno has done research on the evidence of Christian theology
in pre-Hispanic Philippine thought and language10.
The closest notice we have from the region in the time frame we are
discussing is that of John of Marignolli who mentions a "few Christians"
at Sabah, a location he visited on his way to India from China11. Obviously
one possibility is that he was referring to the current place called Sabah in northeast Borneo.
By this time, however, the Chinese and Arab writers seem to agree that
Sanfotsi/Zabag had faded away.
Therefore, our theory is that Nestorian Christianity may have taken sway
for a short while in the empire of Sanfotsi/Zabag, but not in a way
that excluded other religions. Furthermore, the new faith may have
faded away when the patronizing monarch passed on. The supporting evidence, here, is difficult at
best,
but overweighted by the fact that this kingdom otherwise is the only
real candidate for Prester John's historical realm.
Many European travelers who ventured to eastern Asia during the 14th
century painted a picture of Prester John's kingdom that pointed to
a location in the present-day East Indies12. The Behaim Globe of 1492 showed
Prester John's kingdom lying along the coast and archipelagoes of Ptolemy's
Sinus Magnus, the most eastern sea in the world.
The description of a "sandy sea" associated with this river matches descriptions of the seas in insular
Southeast Asia after volcanic eruptions (i.e., Krakatoa and Pinatubo) which become clotted with lahar
and debris:
At this point we should also look at the parallels between Sanfotsi/Zabag and Shambhala:
1 Chronicle of Albericus Trium Fontium. 1241.
2 J. Brampton. Criticas Historico-Chronologica, in Baronius, Annales Ecclesiastici, iv, 650.
Chron. Joh. Bromption ap R. Twyaden, Hist. Angl. Scriptores X, London, 1652.
3 The Chola empire encompassed most of South India and extended as far as present-day Orissa on
the east and Goa on the west. See Ma, Tuan-lin, Ethnographie des peuples étrangers à la Chine : ouvrage composé au XIIIe siècle de notre ère / par Ma-Touan-Lin ; traduit pour la première fois du Chinois avec un commentaire perpétuel par le marquis d'Hervey de Saint-Denys. Paris, 1876-83.
4 K. Aiyangar and R. Sewell, Historical Inscriptions of Southern India. Madras, 1932, pp. 57-58; Epigraphia Indica 22, no. 34.
5 Annual Report on Indian Epigraphy 1956-57: 15. nos. 161 and 164.
6 Annual Report of Indian Epigraphy 1956-57: 15, no. 166.
7 Nilakanta Sastri, The Colas. pp. 271-72; Epigraphia Indica 22: no. 35.
8 John Gray, “The Wadebuli and the Wadiba,” Tanzania Notes and Records, XXXVI, 1968, 22-41; W.H. Ingrams. Zanzibar, Its History and Its Peoples, 2nd ed. London, 1967, 125; Godfrey Dale. The Peoples of Zanzibar. New York, 1920, 13 and 25.
9 Samuel H. Moffett. A history of Christianity in Asia. San Francisco, 1992, 461.
10 Pedro A. Paterno, El Cristianismo en la antigua civilization tagalog; contestacion al M.R.P. Fr. R. Martinez Virgil de la Orden de predicadored obispo de Oviedo. Madrid, 1892.
11 Sir Henry Yule. Cathay and the way thither, being a collection of medieval notices of China, translated and edited by Sir Henry Yule. Lichenstein, 1967.
12 Friedrich Zarncke. Der Priester Johannes. Leipzig, 1883.
13 See the Letter of Prester John and the voyages of Sindbad in the Thousand and One Nights, also Buzurg ibn Shahriyar. The book of the wonders of India : mainland, sea, and islands, edited and translated by G.S.P. Freeman-Grenville. London, 1981.
14 Ibid.
15 Ibid.
16 In his letter, Prester John describes "silk" spun by salamanders that live in fire. The clothing from this cloth is fire-proof and are cleaned with fire. The Chinese had similar tales regarding fire-proof clothing and the salamander, see Berthold Laufer, "Asbestos and Salamander." T'oung Pao magazine, 1915, pp. 299-373.
Fire-proof clothing is mentioned coming from the "Fire Mountain" near the home of the king of Zabag and in other areas of
insular Southeast Asia.
17 The bird was called Ruk by the Muslims and was located in both Zabag and Wakwak.
18 Prester John's letter and: Chau Ju-Kua. Chau Ju-Kua: his work on the Chinese and Arab trade in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, entitled Chu-fan-chï, tr. from the Chinese and annotated by Friedrich Hirth and W. W. Rockhill. St. Petersburg, 1911, 61.
19 This tradition is mentioned in the One Thousand and One Nights and also by Buzurg Shahriyar,
Wasif-Sah and Ibn Khordabzbeh.
20 John R Newman."A Brief History of the Kalachakra" in The Wheel of Time. The Kalachakra in Context. Madison, 1985.
21 Chau Ju-Kua, 61.
Prester John wrote in his letter to the kings
of Europe that his dominion extended over the
"Three Indias."
Hoax or history?
Indian empires of the 12th century
"the eastern islands in this ocean (Sea of Champa), which are nearer to China than India, are the islands of Zabaj, called by the Hindus, Suvarnadvipa, i.e. the gold islands... because you obtain much gold as deposit if you wash only a little of the earth of that country."
"In the sea of Champa (eastern South China Sea) is the empire of Maharaja, the king of the islands, who rules over an empire without limit and has innumerable troops. Even the most rapid vessels could not complete in two years a tour round the isles which are under his possesssion. The territories of this king produce all sorts of spices and aromatics, and no other sovereign of the world gets as much wealth from the soil."
Prester John, The Christian King
Parallels between Sanfotsi/Zabag and Prester John's kingdom
"There is an old tradition that the ground in this country once suddenly
gaped open and out of the cavern came many myriads of cattle, which rushed off in herds
into the mountains, though the people all tried to get them for food. Afterwards
the crevice got stopped up with bamboo and trees and disappeared."
"Three days' journey from this sea are mountains from which rolls down a stony, waterless river, which opens into the sandy sea. As soon as the stream reaches the sea, its stones vanish in it, and are never seen again."
"In our territory is a certain waterless sea consisting of tumbling billows of sand never at rest. None have crossed this sea -- it lacks water all together, yet fish of various kinds are cast up upon the beach, very tasty, and the like are nowhere else to be seen."
Parallels between Sanfotsi/Zabag and Shambhala
Footnotes
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